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In 293, the western Caesar Constantius Chlorus retook some of the territories in Gaul. Carausius’ treasurer Allectus assassinated him and appointed himself emperor, but when Constantius launched a full invasion to reclaim Britain in 296 A.D., Allectus died in the battle and the Britannic Empire was no more.
A new study of the remains of men discovered with iron shackles on their wrist in a mass grave in Athens, Greece, in 2016 has revealed that they were Athenian locals, not invaders or immigrants.
The mass grave was one of three, dubbed the “Esplanada,” that were found in an excavation of the Phaleron necropolis, in use from the 8th to the 5th century B.C. Pottery found inside the grave dates it to between 675 and 650 B.C. The bodies of 79 adult men, all young and healthy, all killed at the same time by the same method, so a deliberate execution rather than a battle, were discovered arms above their heads shackled at the wrists. They had been laid out in three orderly rows and buried with respect.
In the decade since the discovery, there has been much debate on who these men may have been and why they were executed. One possibility was that they were the noble youths who joined the failed coup of Cylon of Athens in 632 B.C., but the radiocarbon dates don’t quite fit. Another possibility was a mass execution of criminals at the dawn of state-enforced judicial power in Athens.
Researchers from Arizona State University’s Center for Bioarchaeological Research recently sought to answer some of the questions using strontium isotope analysis.
Strontium is absorbed into teeth from local food and water during childhood, leaving a chemical signature tied to where a person grew up. By comparing that signature to known local values, researchers can tell whether someone spent their early years near where they were later buried.
The team tested samples from 66 of the men in the Esplanada grave, along with 97 other individuals buried elsewhere at Phaleron. The results showed that nearly all of them, about 97 percent of the men in the mass grave, had local origins.
That figure closely matched the broader Phaleron population, where about 96 percent of those tested were also local.
These results confirm that the individuals interred in the Esplanada were killed by their neighbors, and that they had no significant differences in geographic background. The homogeneity of the results throughout the necropolis support the argument that Attica in the Archaic period was still insular with limited migration, even though the wider Aegean area was seeing increasing interaction and population movement.
The necropolis was discovered on a street that goes up the hill from the eastern defensive walls of the city towards the 2nd century Roman theater, one of the best preserved ancient theaters in the former Roman Empire. The tomb, constructed by erected flat, smooth stone slabs to form a sarcophagus-like enclosure, contained the skeletal remains of one adult, pottery and the silver coins.
“There will need to be much more analysis before a positive identification of the body as a wrestler can be determined,” Sarah E. Bond, a historian at the University of Iowa who was not involved in the discovery, told Live Science. For example, signs of a broken and healed nose could indicate the person was an athlete.
“Coins alone cannot indicate this was a Classical era Greek wrestler,” Bond said, because “these coins were numerous and used as payment by the entire populace, not by wrestlers alone.”
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